Which of the following best describes institutional racism in a historical context?

Institutional racism refers to the ways in which policies and practices within institutions, like schools or governments, create disadvantages for certain racial groups, often without any overt intention to be racist. Historically, this can be seen in laws that enforced segregation, like the Jim Crow laws in the United States, which separated people based on their race and limited opportunities for Black Americans. These laws were supported by institutions and shaped societal norms, leading to long-lasting inequalities in education, employment, and housing. For example, during the 20th century, many neighborhoods were redlined, meaning banks would not lend money to people of color, making it difficult for them to buy homes and build wealth. This shows how institutional actions can reinforce racial disparities over time, even when individuals within those institutions may not hold racist beliefs.